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telescope -
As early as the 1300s, eyeglasses made from convex, or outward-curving, lenses had been developed and were used by people with trouble focusing on nearby objects. By 1450, eyeglasses with concave, or inward-curving, lenses had been developed for people with trouble seeing objects at a distance. Thus, the primary ingredients for making a telescope -- namely, convex and concave lenses -- had been invented. But it wasn't until 1608 that the Dutch optometrist Hans Lippershey applied for a patent on an invention that combined a convex and a concave lens to get a magnifying effect so that faraway objects could be seen as if nearby.
The Italian physicist and mathematician Galileo Galilei learned of Lippershey's "spyglass" device. Despite never having seen it, Galileo worked out the mathematics of the device. He taught himself how to grind lenses, and in a very short time, his mechanical enhancements enabled him to see objects through his telescope at greater distances than Lippershey's spyglass allowed.
Early telescopes such as Galileo's were designed to use the principles of refraction, or the bending of light rays as they pass from one medium, such as air, into and out of another medium, such as glass. The convex objective lens, located at one end of the telescope's tubular body, gathered the light from a distant object. The larger the lens, the more light it could gather. As light rays passed through the objective lens, its curvature caused the rays to converge and form an image of the viewed object near the other end of the tube, at the focal point. A concave eyepiece then magnified the tiny image for the viewer to see.
Galileo's first telescope offered limited magnification and a narrow field of view. He eventually succeeded in magnifying an object about 30 times, but realized that enlarging it any further was not practical because the field of view became too small. Galileo used his instruments to make important discoveries concerning the surface of the Moon, the moons of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, and sunspots.
Great Arsenal -
Great sailing ability and efficient economic organization of the trading companies were just two of the factors that made the Venetian navy great. To guarantee itself supremacy of the sea, Venice had to be able to count on a third factor, just as important: the ability to build its own ships.
At first, Venetian ships were built in small private workshops; then, around 1200, these businesses were grouped into one single public shipyard: the Arsenal.
This huge structure employed designers, shipwrights and other specialized workers. The Arsenal workers, the so-called 'arsenalotti', were a community apart in the city, the depository of a precious heritage, handed down from generation to generation and jealously protected.
The drawing of the "Sesto", that is the design of the ship's hull profile, a very difficult operation, was done by the "Proto", the arsenal's true authority. The ship's success at sea depended on this stage and it required great experience. The shipyard organization was highly advanced with work shared out among different sectors, quality control of raw materials, standardization of many manufacturing stages and even history's first assembly line.
This complete, self-sufficient manufacturing cycle allowed the building of up to three large ships a day and guaranteed real superiority for Venice.
the Doge of Venice -
(Venetian Italian: “duke”), highest official of the republic of Venice for more than 1,000 years (from the 8th to the 18th century) and symbol of the sovereignty of the Venetian state. The title was also used relatively briefly in Genoa.
Excerpted from Encyclopedia Britannica and Travel Italy
telescope -
As early as the 1300s, eyeglasses made from convex, or outward-curving, lenses had been developed and were used by people with trouble focusing on nearby objects. By 1450, eyeglasses with concave, or inward-curving, lenses had been developed for people with trouble seeing objects at a distance. Thus, the primary ingredients for making a telescope -- namely, convex and concave lenses -- had been invented. But it wasn't until 1608 that the Dutch optometrist Hans Lippershey applied for a patent on an invention that combined a convex and a concave lens to get a magnifying effect so that faraway objects could be seen as if nearby.
The Italian physicist and mathematician Galileo Galilei learned of Lippershey's "spyglass" device. Despite never having seen it, Galileo worked out the mathematics of the device. He taught himself how to grind lenses, and in a very short time, his mechanical enhancements enabled him to see objects through his telescope at greater distances than Lippershey's spyglass allowed.
Early telescopes such as Galileo's were designed to use the principles of refraction, or the bending of light rays as they pass from one medium, such as air, into and out of another medium, such as glass. The convex objective lens, located at one end of the telescope's tubular body, gathered the light from a distant object. The larger the lens, the more light it could gather. As light rays passed through the objective lens, its curvature caused the rays to converge and form an image of the viewed object near the other end of the tube, at the focal point. A concave eyepiece then magnified the tiny image for the viewer to see.
Galileo's first telescope offered limited magnification and a narrow field of view. He eventually succeeded in magnifying an object about 30 times, but realized that enlarging it any further was not practical because the field of view became too small. Galileo used his instruments to make important discoveries concerning the surface of the Moon, the moons of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, and sunspots.
Great Arsenal -
Great sailing ability and efficient economic organization of the trading companies were just two of the factors that made the Venetian navy great. To guarantee itself supremacy of the sea, Venice had to be able to count on a third factor, just as important: the ability to build its own ships.
At first, Venetian ships were built in small private workshops; then, around 1200, these businesses were grouped into one single public shipyard: the Arsenal.
This huge structure employed designers, shipwrights and other specialized workers. The Arsenal workers, the so-called 'arsenalotti', were a community apart in the city, the depository of a precious heritage, handed down from generation to generation and jealously protected.
The drawing of the "Sesto", that is the design of the ship's hull profile, a very difficult operation, was done by the "Proto", the arsenal's true authority. The ship's success at sea depended on this stage and it required great experience. The shipyard organization was highly advanced with work shared out among different sectors, quality control of raw materials, standardization of many manufacturing stages and even history's first assembly line.
This complete, self-sufficient manufacturing cycle allowed the building of up to three large ships a day and guaranteed real superiority for Venice.
the Doge of Venice -
(Venetian Italian: “duke”), highest official of the republic of Venice for more than 1,000 years (from the 8th to the 18th century) and symbol of the sovereignty of the Venetian state. The title was also used relatively briefly in Genoa.
Excerpted from Encyclopedia Britannica and Travel Italy